Book Chapters

The book is organized into three sections, each featuring original research about different aspects of how adolescents interact with and are influenced by media in relation to their sexuality, with introductions and commentaries by the editors in each section. The book also includes an introduction and conclusion written by the editors that discusses the current and future state of the field of adolescent sexuality and media effects research, as well as a foreword by pioneering researcher Jane D. Brown, Ph.D.

This book is an essential resource for researchers and students in communication, media effects, human development, psychology, and/or public health. Or anyone interested in better understanding the influence of media on adolescent sexuality, such as parents, educators, and policymakers.

See below for summaries of each of the main chapters.

Introduction

  • Jessica Fitts Willoughby, Stacey J. T. Hust, Rebecca Ortiz, and Leticia Couto

    Researchers have examined the effects of media on adolescent sexuality and sexual health for more than two decades now. To provide an overview of the most recent findings, a review of research focused on teens, sex, and media (N = 210) published from 2013 to 2023 was conducted. Research focused on myriad topics including sexual health, sexual violence, sexting, relationships, and gender identity. Results indicate there was a decline in the number of articles published during the 10-year time span investigated. Studies most frequently used quantitative methods, specifically cross-sectional surveys. The authors encourage consideration for changes to structural barriers that may prohibit growth in the field and encourage researchers to consider ways in which scholarship can continue to advance this line of research.  

  • Rebecca Ortiz, Jessica Fitts Willoughby, and Stacey J. T. Hust

    Researchers who study adolescent sexuality and media face significant and growing obstacles conducting their research amid debates over sexual and reproductive healthcare access and evolving discourses on gender and sexual identities. To better understand these challenges, this chapter presents findings from a survey with a diverse group of researchers (N = 53) who shared the challenges they experience and motivations they have for conducting this type of research. Many were motivated to do the research to help and advocate for and alongside youth regarding their sexuality and sexual health, but they often experienced obstacles, such as barriers and limitations driven by gatekeepers’ fears and moral objections and dismissiveness or personal attacks from others. Findings indicate that researchers need better structural support and recognition of the value of their work to ensure they can maintain rigorous scientific standards when conducting research on topics that often inform efforts to improve young people’s lives.

Section 1

Let’s Talk About Mediated Sex: Using Media for Sexual Identity Development

  • Stacey J. T. Hust, Jessica Fitts Willoughby, Christina Griselda Nickerson, Ron Price, Rebecca Ortiz, Arian Karimitar, Joy Wanja Muraya, Hyelim Lee, Yoon Joo Lee, and CJ Janssen

    Gender is socially constructed, including through engagement with media. Researchers used virtual in-depth interviews with 17 young people (15- to 23-years-old, M = 17) from six countries, including Brazil, Iran, Kenya, Nigeria, South Korea and the United States, to explore how teens make sense of gender portrayals in media. The researchers identified media stars popular with each adolescent and discussed their perceptions of the star’s gender, then showed participants images of two global social media influencers who challenged perceptions of gender as a binary. Results obtained after a thematic analysis of the data highlight that teens make sense of gender via traditional cues and associate gender perceptions with sexual orientation, in part given the limited representation of nonbinary and other LGBTQ+ people in media.

  • Charisse L'Pree

    Studies have explored the effects of messages regarding sexuality on adolescents, but large quantitative studies often ignore the nuanced sense making of audiences whereas smaller qualitative studies may lack generalizability. Drawing on sense making theory and receiver-oriented message analysis, this study featured a thematic analysis of responses collected during an activity for first-year college students enrolled in a professional media program (N = 312) where participants were asked to critically analyze sexuality representation in their favorite media content. Responses revealed three main themes in their reception of messages from their favorite media: (1) heterosexuality is normalized, (2) representations of queerness vary, and (3) representations of sexuality are still evolving. Some students approached messages with a critical lens and were eager to consider their role in future representations, whereas others – despite recognizing limited representation – observed and rationalized hegemonically heterosexual content.  

  • Marie-Louise Mares and Yuchi Anthony Chen

    Media representations and online communities serve important functions for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) communities, including identity exploration and support. Although parental support is one of the strongest predictors of LGBTQ youths’ mental health, families often struggle to communicate effectively in this context. This chapter presents results from a survey with LGBTQ youth about how often identity-related media content led them to discuss topics with a parent and how those experiences went. Results revealed that some families almost never talked about LGBTQ-related issues in response to media content, some did so occasionally, and a smaller group did so fairly often, with a mix of positive and negative experiences reported. The findings suggest that co-viewing of identity-related media provides opportunities for parents to show their support, and that symbolic annihilation of particular groups deprives them of those opportunities.

  • Leah Dajches, Larissa Terán, Kun Yan, and Jennifer Stevens Aubrey

    Adolescent girls may use celebrity idols as avenues to safely explore their sexual needs and desires. Using a sample of U.S. adolescent girls, the researchers examined the relationship between celebrity idolization and four aspects of the girls’ sexual self-concept. Results indicated that celebrity idolization was positively associated with sexual anxiety, sexual self-esteem, and enjoyment of sexualization, but was negatively associated with sexual self-efficacy. When broken down by sexual identity (i.e., heterosexual or LGBQ+), however, the relationships only remained significant for heterosexual girls. Overall, results suggest that celebrity idols can function as potential targets for romantic/sexual development for heterosexual teens girls, but for LGBQ+ girls, there is still more to understand about how they develop and process their sexual self-concept beyond heteronormative celebrities.

Section 2

Princesses, Pornography, and Sexual Violence: Understanding the Impact of Teens’ Experiences with Sexual Media Content

  • L. Monique Ward, Jennifer Stevens Aubrey, Enrica Bridgewater, and Danielle Rosenscruggs

    Disney Princesses can introduce young girls to stories of love and romantic appeal. However, concerns have arisen regarding their limited portrayals of beauty and idealized romantic love, which may constrain girls’ perceptions of relationship ideals. This chapter presents results from a survey with 623 undergraduate women that explored the consequences of Disney Princess exposure, engagement, and affinity in childhood on identity formation and romantic relationship beliefs in late adolescence. Findings indicate that engagement and affinity with the princess culture are associated with young women’s negative body image, increased self-sexualization, and stronger beliefs in romantic ideals. Favoring the earlier and more traditional princesses was associated with the highest levels of courtship stereotypes. Findings suggest that childhood engagement with characters and storylines that idealize courtship and femininity can impact related beliefs in adolescence.  

  • Joris Van Ouytsel, Chelly Maes, and Laura Vandenbosch

    Sexting constitutes a form of image-based sexual abuse when mutual consent between adolescents is not established, such as when one is pressured to engage in sexting or when images are distributed without consent. This study explored the prevalence of image-based sexting and sexual abuse experiences among early to middle adolescents (12-15 years) in Belgium. The study surveyed 2,644 adolescents and found that 9.6% had sent image-based sexts and 34.2% had received them. About 11 percent (10.9%) were pressured to send an image-based sext and 6.7% reported non-consensual forwarding of an image-based sext. Additionally, 9.6% were asked by adults for image-based sexts, and 15.5% had received unsolicited image-based sexts from adults. Boys were more likely than girls to non-consensually forward an image-based sext, and girls were more likely to send or receive image-based sexts as well as experience image-based sexual abuse and adult sexual solicitation. Overall, these findings suggest educational and prevention efforts focused on helping adolescents avoid negative outcomes of image-based sexting may need to be specifically tailored to sex differences.   

  • Rebecca Densley, McCall Booth, and Jane Shawcroft

    This study explored associations between pornography, peer norms, and teen sexting behaviors among a sample of 690 U.S. teens, ages 15 to 18. The researchers found that pornography use was significantly associated with teens sending, receiving, and soliciting sexts and that teens who reported that their close peers frequently sext and approve of sexting were more likely to send, receive and solicit sexts. Teens who reported that their distal peers approved of sexting were likely to receive sexts. Pornography use was more strongly associated with sending, receiving, and soliciting sexts than peer norms. Teens may benefit from more discussion around sexting and pornography that focuses on consent and sexual health.

  • Jone Martínez-Bacaicoa, Mariana Alonso, and Manuel Gámez-Guadix

    Young people often experience technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV) online. Through a longitudinal survey of 12- to 16-year olds in Spain, the researchers found that approximately one in three adolescents reported experiencing some form of TFSV in the past year, with girls experiencing significantly higher rates of victimization than boys. Girls also exhibited worse long-term psychological outcomes, including anxiety and depression, with various forms of TFSV one year later. Older teens experienced higher rates of TFSV, but younger teens experienced more anxiety symptoms with digital sexual harassment after one year. This chapter discusses the study findings and the cultural and social changes—particularly in relation to gender equality and the rights of women—that may affect various forms of TFSV.  

Section 3

Adolescents as Engagers and Creators: Opportunities for Media Education and Advocacy 

  • Christina V. Dodson and Tracy M. Scull

    The researchers present a case study of their decade-long research into media literacy education for adolescent sexual health promotion. Takeaways from evaluating a media literacy education program series across different developmental stages in adolescence and using different pedagogical formats showcase that a media literacy education intervention can positively impact media attitudes and processing and sexual health knowledge, cognitions, and behaviors. Considering the ever-changing media landscape and shifts in adolescent media consumption and production, the researchers contend that media literacy education assumes a vital role in empowering young people to make informed and healthy sexual choices. 

  • Carina M. Zelaya, Rachel Hanebutt and Angela Cooke-Jackson

    Teens frequently seek out information online for sexual health. Based on a thematic analysis of more than 300 young adults open-ended responses to a question about what information they wish they had online related to sexual health as teens, the researchers found that young adults felt there was a significant lack of comprehensive, realistic, and inclusive content. The study highlights the need for digital sexual health resources that provide practical guidance on sexual activities, accurate representations of sexual anatomy, and inclusive sexuality and sexual health discourse. The authors suggest there is a need to advocate for a deliberate shift toward developing content that is more inclusive, comprehensive, and tailored to the needs of users.

  • Rachel E. Riggs, Sydney E. Brammer, and Rochelle Davidson Mhonde

    This chapter explores how exposure to sexual assault victimization narratives in popular media can influence adolescent girls’ ability to understand sexual assault and imagine whether they would share a similar story, should they be in the protagonists’ place. Using an experimental design, the authors examined whether viewing a sexual assault victimization narrative that was supportive or unsupportive, in comparison to a control, impacted teen girls’ self-efficacy for sharing such a story. Findings provide some evidence that watching such narratives can influence sensemaking, and that stories that are negatively framed may negatively impact adolescent girls’ self-efficacy in sharing such a story.

  • Jessica Fitts Willoughby, Jessica Gall Myrick, Leticia Couto, Stacey J. T. Hust, and Rebecca Ortiz

    Social media can play a role in adolescent identity development, and teens are frequent users of social media. The authors conducted a survey with 18- to 20-year-olds (N = 963) from the United States, United Kingdom and Australia. Teens were using social media to advocate for topics related to sexual and reproductive health, including contraceptive access, STI testing and prevention, access to menstrual products and abortion. Across all topic areas, teens frequently reported liking content and following content creators. Approximately one in four teens posted their own opinions on the topics. Sharing their opinions and using a hashtag relevant to the topic were associated with increased likelihood of attending a rally or demonstration. Findings highlight that teens are using social media to advocate for sexual and reproductive health causes in various ways.  

Conclusion

  • Stacey J. T. Hust, Jessica Fitts Willoughby, and Rebecca Ortiz

    Much research has been conducted on teens, sex, and media, but there is still much more to learn. In this chapter, the authors discuss key takeaways from this text overall and the future of teens, sex and media research. The authors acknowledge the considerable obstacles researchers in this area face, and they discuss potential structural changes to better support scholars' work in this area. Finally, the authors identify goals that will be key to further the field of teens, sex, and media research going forward including improved measurement, increased scientific rigor, and the promotion of a sex positive paradigm.